Rig Vedic Age
During the Rig Vedic period, the Aryans were mostly confined to the Indus region. The RigVeda refers to Saptasindhu or the land of seven rivers. This includes the five rivers of Punjab,namely Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej along with the Indus and Saraswathi. Thepolitical, social and cultural life of the Rig Vedic people can be traced from the hymns of theRig Veda.
Eastward Movements of Vedic People
The hymns of the Rigveda afford an interesting glimpse of the Aryan settlements in India.The centre of their activities was the Punjab. The rivers most often referred to are the Indus itself, the Sarasvati and the Drishadvati and the five streams – the Sutudri (Sutlej), Vipas (Beas), Parushni (Ravi), Asikni (Chenab) and Vitasta (Jhelum).The rivers mentioned outside the Indus basin are the Ganga, the Yamuna and the Sarayu. The Ganga was not an important river in the period of the Rigveda while Yamuna has been mentioned only three times. The Rigveda also mentions some rivers of Afghanistan namely Kubha (Kabul), Gomati (Gomal) Krumu (Kurram) and Suvastu (Swat).The Rigveda mentions one outstanding historical event, i.e. the victory of King Sudas over the Ten-king confederacy. Sudas was the chief of the Bharatas. At first Visvamitra was the priest of Sudas who, however, dismissed the former and appointed Vasishtha as his priest.
Thereupon a long and bitter struggle ensued between the two rival priests. Visvamitra led a tribal confederacy of ten kings against the Bharatas, the federation consisting of the five well known tribes Puru,Yadu,Turvasa,Adu and Druhya along with five others namely -Alina, Paktha,Bhalanas,Siva and Vishanin. The Bharatas utterly routed the confederacy on the bank of the Parushni, modern Ravi. Soon after this battle Sudas had to fight with three other non-
Aryan tribes-Ajas, Sigrus and Yakshus. The Bharatas were settled in the region between the Sarasvati and the Yamuna while the Purus remained in the Harappa region. Though defeated the Purus were a very important tribe and were closely connected with Tritsus and the Bharatas. Out of the amalgamation of these rival tribes in later Vedic period emerged the Kurus. In their migration to the east and south-east the Aryans came into conflict with the Dasas or Dasyus.The Kiratas, Kikatas, Chandalas, Parnakas, and Simyus were Dasa tribes who inhabited the Gangetic valley. The Dasas were dark-complexioned, snub-nosed, worshippers of the phallus, rich in cattle and lived in fortified strongholds; pura. It would be
too facile to suppose that there was perpetual enmity between the native dasyus and the invading Aryans. A gradual fusion took place and the process by which this sense of unity developed was called Aryanization.
Later Vedic Period
The Aryans further moved towards east in the Later Vedic Period. The Satapatha Brahmana refers to the expansion of Aryans to the eastern Gangetic plains. Several tribal groups and kingdoms are mentioned in the later Vedic literature. One important development during this period is the growth of large kingdoms. Kuru and Panchala kingdoms flourished in the beginning. Parikshat and Janamejaya were the famous rulers of Kuru kingdom. Pravahana
Jaivali was a popular king of the Panchalas. He was a patron of learning. After the fall of Kurus and Panchalas, other kingdoms like Kosala, Kasi and Videha came into prominence.The famous ruler of Kasi was Ajatasatru. Janaka was the king of Videha with its capital at Mithila. His court was adorned by scholar Yajnavalkya. Magadha, Anga and Vanga seem to be the easternmost tribal kingdoms. The later Vedic texts also refer to the three divisions of
India – Aryavarta (northern India), Madhyadesa (central India) and Dakshinapatha (southern India).
Society
THE EARLY VEDIC SOCIETY
The family was the basic unit of the Rigvedic society. It was patriarchal in nature Monogamy was the usual norm of marriage but the chiefs at times practiced polygamy. Marriages took place after attaining maturity. After marriage the wife went to her husband’s house. The family was part of a larger grouping called vis or clan. One or more than one clans made jana or tribe. The jana was the largest social unit. All the members of a clan were related to each other by blood relation. The membership of a tribe was based on birth and not on residence in a certain area. Thus the members of the Bharata tribe were known as the Bharatas. It did not imply any territory. The Rigvedic society was a simple and largely an egalitarian society. There was no caste division. Occupation was not based on birth. Members of a family could adopt different occupations. However certain differences did exist during the period.
Varna
Varna or colour was the basis of initial differentiation between the Vedic and non-Vedic people. The Vedic people were fair whereas the non-Vedic indigenous people were dark in complexion and spoke a different language. Thus the Rigveda mentions arya varna and dasa varna. Here dasa has been used in the sense of a group different from the Rigvedic people.Later, dasa came to mean a slave. Besides, certain practices during this period, such as
concentration of larger share of the war booty in the hands of the chiefs and priests resulted in the creation of some inequalities within a tribe during the later part of this Vedic phase. The warriors, priests and the ordinary people were the three sections of the Rigvedic tribe. Thesudra category came into existence only towards the end of the Rigvedic period. This means that the division of society in the early Vedic period was not sharp. This is indicated by the following verse in the Rigveda: “I am a poet, my father is a physician and my mother grinds grain upon the stone. Striving for wealth, with varied plans, we follow our desires like cattle.” The women in society enjoyed respectable position. She was married at a proper age and could choose a husband of her own choice. She could take part in the proceedings of the tribal assemblies called sabha and samiti
SOCIAL CHANGES IN THE LATER VEDIC PHASE
The family remains the basic unit of the Vedic society. However, its composition underwent a change. The later Vedic family became large enough to be called a joint-family with three or four generations living together. The rows of hearths discovered at Atranjikhera and at Ahichchhtra (both in western Uttar Pradesh) show that these were meant for communal feeding or for cooking the food of large families. The term ‘Kula’ for families is mentioned rarely in Rigveda. Kulapa was the head of the family. It comprised father, mother, sons, slaves and so on. Another word ‘griha’ is mentioned in Rigveda for family several times and
Kula may have been used to indicate a loose knit joint family. Kulapa is often described not only as householder but as fighter The institution of gotra developed in this period. This means that people having common gotra descended from a common ancestor and no marriage between the members of the same gotra could take place. Monogamous marriages were preferred even though polygamy was frequent. Some restrictions on women appeared during this period. In a text women have been counted as a vice along with dice and wine. In another text a daughter has been said to be the source of all sorrows. Women had to stay with her
husband at his place after marriage. The participation of women in public meetings was restricted.
Varna system
However, the most important change was the rise and growth of social differentiation in the form of varna system. The four varnas in which society came to be divided were the brahmanas, kshatriyas, vaishyas and shudras. The growing number of sacrifices and rituals during the period made the brahmanas very powerful. They conducted various rituals including those related to different stages of agricultural operations. This made them all the more important. The kshatriyas, next in the social hierarchy, were the rulers. They along with brahmanas controlled all aspects of life. The vaishyas, the most numerous varna were engaged in agriculture as well as in trade and artisanal activities. The brahmanas and the kshatriyas were dependent on the tributes (gifts and taxes) paid to them by the vaishyas. The shudras, the fourth varna were at the bottom of the social hierarchy. They were ordained to be in the service of the three upper varnas. They were not entitled to the ritual of upanayana samskara (investiture with sacred thread necessary to acquire education). The other three
varnas were entitled to such a ceremony and hence they were known as dvijas. This can be construed as the beginning of the imposition of disabilities on the shudras as well as the beginning of the concept of ritual pollution. Another important institution that began to take shape was ashrama or different stages of life. Brahmacharya (student life), grihastha (householder), and vanaprastha (hermitage) stages are mentioned in the texts. Later, sanyasa, the fourth stage also came to be added. Together with varna, it came to be known as varnaashrama dharma
THE EARLY VEDIC POLITY
JANA
The chief social unit of the Aryans was known as jana. In early Vedic society a tribe was called jana. The clans in a tribe were called vish. Theleader of a lineage in a clan was a chief called a raja. The lineage chief, a raja of a clan, had the responsibility of organizing protection of his people and their cattle. He was helped in his task by the tribal assemblies called sabha, samiti, vidatha, gana and parishad. The inter tribal conflicts were frequent. The ‘Battle of TenKings’ mentioned in the Rig Veda was fought among different tribes like the Bharata, Purus, Yadus etc. Tribal conflict were related to cattle raids, cattle thefts etc.Cattle were the chief measure of wealth. And the term used for cattle during this period was ‘gavishti’, which means to search for cows. Cattle raids were common in those days. The chief of the tribe was the Raja or the Gopati (one who protect cows).Kinship units are labelled as Gotra. The position of Raja was not hereditary but he was selected from amongst the clansmen. The clan settled in villages.It was a patriarchal society. The birth of a son was desired by everyone in the clan.
Sabha and Samiti
Out of Jana, sabha and samiti were the most important assemblies mentioned in the Rig Veda.The Sabha might have been the council of select clan members and the Samiti, perhaps comprised of the whole clan. These two assemblies performed the functions
of the government and the administration. They was also involved in the selection of the Raja. All aspects of life were discussed in these assemblies. These may include wars, distribution of the spoils of wars, judicial and religious activities etc. Thus these assemblies in a way limited the powers of the chiefs. Women were also allowed to participate in the deliberations of the sabha and samiti. It functioned as centers for settling disputes, redistribution, and provided a place for performing sacrifice. The Sabha was the ‘Body of the Elders’ and constituted mainly of the Brahmanas and the elite. The speaker of Sabha was called Sabhapati and its members, Sabhya. The Samiti was more in the nature of a folk assembly in which the entire population could participate. The members of the Samiti were called Vishah. The most important function of the Samiti was the election of the king. The Sabha, a selected body was
more like an advisory council.
Vidhata
Vidhata appears for 122 times in the Rig-Veda and seems to be the most important assembly in the Rig Vedic period. Vidhata was an assembly meant for secular, religious and military purpose. The Rig-Veda only once indicated the connection of woman with the Sabha whereas Vidhata is frequently associated with woman women actively participated in the deliberations with men. Vidhata was the earliest folk assembly of the Aryans, performing all kinds of functions- economic, military religious and social. The Vidhata also provided common ground to clans and tribes for the worship of their gods
Gana
Gana, the technical word for the republic, has been interpreted in most of the Rigvedic references in the sense of assembly or troop. A careful study shows that it was a sort of gentile organisation of the Indo-Afyans. The leader of the gana is generally called ganapati
and at some places ganasya raja.
Parisad
The early parisad seems to be a tribal military assembly, partly matriarchal and partly patriarchal. However, the variety of the references to the parisad in the Rigveda may also have been due to the non-Vedic character of the parisad. In later-Vedic period it tended to become partly an academy and partly a royal council dominated by the priests, who functioned as teachers and advisers.
The post of the chief was not hereditary. The tribe generally elected him. Though the succession in one family was known but that was not based on the rule of primogeniture (i.e., the eldest son acquiring the position). The purohita assisted and advised the chief on various
matters. Other than the purohita, there were a limited number of other officials who assisted the chief in the day-to-day tribal affairs. Senani, kulapa, gramani, etc. are some of the functionaries which find mention in the Rigveda. The sena or army was not a permanent
fighting group and consisted of able bodied tribesmen who were mobilized at the time of the wars. Takshan, the carpenter and rathakara, the chariot maker were responsible for making chariots. There is no official mentioned as a collector of taxes. The people offered to the chief what is called bali. It was just a voluntary contribution made by the ordinary tribesmen on special occasions. All this shows that the early Vedic polity was an uncomplicated system based on the support and active participation of all the tribesmen. This situation, however, changed during the later Vedic phase.
CHANGES IN THE LATER VEDIC PHASE
The changes in the material and social life during the later Vedic period led to changes in the political sphere as well. The nature of chiefship changed in this period. The territorial idea gained ground. The people started to loose their control over the chief and the popular assemblies gradually disappeared. The chiefship had become hereditary. The idea of the divine nature of kingship gets a mention in the literature of this period. The brahmanas helped
the chiefs in this process. The elaborate coronation rituals such as vajapeya and rajasuya established the chief authority. As the chiefs became more powerful, the authority of the popular assemblies started waning. The officers were appointed to help the chief in
administration and they acquired the functions of the popular assemblies as main advisors. A rudimentary army too emerged as an important element of the political structure during this period. All these lived on the taxes called bali, the shulka, and the bhaga offered by the people. The chiefs of this period belonged to the kshatriya varna and they in league with the brahmanas tried to establish complete control over the people in the name of dharma.
However, all these elements do not show that a janapada or territorial state with all its attributes such as a standing army and bureaucracy had emerged in the later Vedic period but the process has started and soon after the vedic period in the sixth century BC we notice the rise of sixteen mahajanpadas in the northern India.
EARLY VEDIC ECONOMY
Pastoralism
The early Vedic Aryans were pastoralists. Cattle rearing was their main occupation. They reared cattle, sheep, goats, and horses for purposes of milk, meat and hides. We arrive at this conclusion after analyzing the literary evidence in the Rigveda. A large number of words are derived from the word go meaning cow. A wealthy person was known as gomat and the daughter called duhitri which means one who milks the cow. The word gaveshana and Gavishti literally means search for cows, but it also means battle since many battles were fought over cattle. The cows were thought of as providers of everything. Prayers are offered for increase in the number of cattle. All the above and many more references show that cattle breeding were the most important economic activity of the Rigvedic Aryans. However, this is not to suggest that the early Vedic people had no knowledge of agriculture. The evidence for
agriculture in comparison with pastoral activities in the early portions is meager and mostly late insertions. A few references show that they had knowledge of agriculture and practiced it
to supplement their food requirements. They produced yava (modern jau or barley), which was rather a generic word for cereals. Apart from cattle-rearing and small-scale cultivation,
people were engaged in many other economic activities. Hunting, carpentry, tanning, weaving, chariot-making, metal smeltry etc. were some such activities. The products of these activities were exchanged through barter. However, cows were the most favoured medium of exchange. The priests received cows, horses and gold ornaments as fees for performing sacrifices.
CHANGES IN THE LATER VEDIC PHASE
During later Vedic phase, agriculture became the mainstay of the Vedic people. Many rituals were introduced to initiate the process of agriculture. It also speaks of ploughing with yokes of six and eight oxen. The buffalo had been domesticated for the agricultural purposes. This animal was extremely useful in ploughing the swampy land. The god Indra acquires a new epithet ‘Lord of the Plough’ in this period. The number and varieties of plant food increased. Apart from barley, people now cultivated wheat, rice, pulses, lentils, millet, sugarcane etc.The items of dana and dakshina included cooked rice. Thus with the beginning of food production agricultural produce began to be offered in the rituals. Tila, from which the first widely used vegetable food-oil was derived increasingly, came to be used in rituals. The main factor in the expansion of the Aryan culture during the later Vedic period was the beginning of the use of iron around 1000 BC. The Rigvedic people knew of a metal called ayas which was either copper or bronze. In the later Vedic literature ayas was qualified with shyama or krishna meaning black to denote iron. Archaeology has shown that iron began to be used around 1000 BC which is also the period of later Vedic literature. The northern and eastern parts of India to which the Aryans later migrated receive more rainfall than the north-western part of India. As a result this region is covered with thick rain forests which could not be cleared by copper or stone tools used by Rigvedic people. The use of iron tools now helped
people clear the dense rain forests particularly the huge stumps left after burning, in a more effective manner. Large tracts of forestland could be converted into cultivable pieces in relatively lesser time. The iron plough could turn the soil from deeper portions making it
more fertile. This process seems to have begun during the later part of the Rigvedic period but the effect of iron tools and implements become evident only towards the end of the Later Vedic period. There has been a continuous increase in the population during the later Vedic period due to the expansion of the economy based on agriculture. The increasing number and size of Painted Grey Ware (PGW) settlements in the doab area shows this. With the passage
of time the Vedic people also acquired better knowledge of seasons, manuring and irrigation. All these developments resulted in the substantial enlargement of certain settlements such as Hastinapur and Kaushambi towards the end of the Later Vedic period. These settlements slowly began to acquire characteristics of towns. Such rudimentary towns inhabited mainly by the chiefs, princes, priests and artisans were supported by the peasants who could spare for
them some part of their produce voluntarily or involuntarily
THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION
The prayers to propitiate gods for physical protection and for material gains were the main concerns of the Rigvedic people. The Rigvedic gods were generally personifications of different aspects of natural forces such as rains, storm, sun etc. The attributes of these gods also reflect the tribal and patriarchal nature of the society as we do not find many goddesses mentioned in the text. Indra, Agni, Varuna, Mitra, Dyaus, Pushana, Yama, Soma, etc. are all male gods. In comparison, we have only a few goddesses such as Ushas, Sarasvati, Prithvi, etc which occupy secondary positions in the pantheon. The functions of different gods reflect their needs in the society. Thus, since the Rigvedic people were engaged in wars with each other they worshipped Indra as a god. He is the most frequently mentioned god in the Rigveda. He carried the thunderbolt and was also respected as a weather god who brought
rains. Maruts the god of storm aided Indra in the wars in the way tribesmen aided their leader in the tribal wars. Agni, the fire god was the god of the home and was considered an intermediary between gods and men. Soma was associated with plants and herbs. Soma was also a plant from which an intoxicating juice was extracted. This juice was drunk at sacrifices.Varuna, another important deity, was the keeper of the cosmic order known as rita. This rita was an important aspect of tribal set-up. Pushan was the god of the roads, herdsmen and cattle. In the life of the pastoral nomads, this god must have been very important. Other gods were similarly associated with other aspects of nature and life. All these gods were invoked and propitiated at yajnas or sacrifices. These sacrifices were organized by the chiefs of the tribes and performed by priests. Gods thus invoked in the sacrifices supposedly rewarded the sacrificers with success in wars, progeny, increase in cattle and long life. It also brought large number of gifts in the form of dana and dakshina to the priests. It is important here to note that during the entire Vedic phase people did not construct temples nor did they worship any statue. These features of Indian religion developed much later
CHANGES IN THE LATER VEDIC PHASE
We have already noted that in the later Vedic period agriculture had become an important activity of the people. Changes in the material life naturally resulted in a change in their attitude towards gods and goddesses too. Continuous interactions with the local non-Aryan
population also contributed to these changes. Thus, Vishnu and Rudra which were smaller deities in the Rigveda became extremely important. However, we do not have any reference to different incarnations or avataras of Vishnu, we are so familiar with, in any of the Later Vedic texts. Another important feature was the increase in the frequency and number of the yajna which generally ended with the sacrifices of a large number of animals. This was probably the result of the growing importance of a class of brahmanas and their efforts to maintain their supremacy in the changing society. These yajnas brought to them a large amount of wealth in form of dana and dakshina. Some of the important yajnas were
ashvamedha, vajapeya, rajasuya etc. You must have heard about these yajnas in the stories of the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. In these yajnas which continued for many days a large part of gifts went to the brahmanas. The purpose of these yajnas was twofold. Firstly, it established the authority of the chiefs over the people, and secondly, it reinforced the territorial aspect of the polity since people from all over the kingdom were invited to these sacrifices. You will find it interesting to know that people began to oppose these sacrifices during the later Vedic period itself. A large number of cattle and other animals which were sacrificed at the end of each yajna must have hampered the growth of economy. Therefore, a
path of good conduct and self-sacrifice was recommended for happiness and welfare in the last sections of the Vedas, called the Upnishads. The Upnishads contain two basic principles of Indian philosophy viz., karma and the transmigration of soul, i.e., rebirth based on past deeds. According to these texts real happiness lies in getting moksha i.e. freedom from this cycle of birth and re-birth.
